Design of Nanostructured Enzyme Immobilized Platforms for Precise Diagnosis and Treatment of Endocrine Disease: An Updated Review.

Endocrine diseases are a big health problem worldwide, due to their complex pathophysiology, the diversity of clinical phenotypes and the necessity of sensitive, stable, and real‑time monitoring of hormonal and metabolic biomarkers. Conventional endocrine assays are plagued by the need for the presence of large amounts of biomarker, the time needed for the response, poor enzyme stability, matrix effects and lack of continuous or point of care suitability. To overcome these limitations, technical approaches are based on nanostructured enzyme-immobilized platforms that provide high surface to volume ratio for high enzyme loading, tunable surface chemistry for control of immobilization, enhanced electron-transfer pathways for electrochemical signal amplification, porous architecture to confine and stabilize enzyme, and plasmonic effects (eg, localized surface plasmon resonance) for optical signal enhancement. In this review, an updated overview of the design principles, mechanisms and biomedical relevance of enzyme immobilization on nanostructured platforms for the diagnosis and treatment-related management of endocrine diseases is provided. The carbon-based materials, metallic and metal-oxide nanoparticles, polymeric systems, metal-organic frameworks, covalent organic frameworks, and hybrid nanocomposites are discussed in the context of their role in tuning the loading of enzymes, catalytic activity, operational stability, signal transduction and biocompatibility. Particular emphasis is placed on applications in diabetes mellitus, thyroid, adrenal disorders and lipid metabolic imbalance, as well as emerging applications in targeted therapy, enzyme guided drug delivery, oxidative-stress regulation and nanotheranostics. The current problems of reproducibility, long-term stability, scalability, biocompatibility and clinical translation are critically discussed. Potential future trends, such as AI-powered biosensors, next-generation nanozymes, multiplexed platforms, and personalized nanomedicine strategies, are suggested.