Biohybrid actuators in robotics: recent trends and future perspectives of skeletal and cardiac muscle integration

Biohybrid robots integrate skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues with synthetic components, emulating energy-efficient, adaptive natural movements. Skeletal muscles enable precise control suited for walking and gripping, whereas cardiac muscles offer rhythmic contractions ideal for swimming and pumping. Despite significant progress, achieving stability, scalability, and precise biotic-abiotic integration remains challenging. This review summarizes recent advances, identifies critical obstacles, and proposes strategies for next-generation biohybrid robotic systems.