Integrated solar PV energy management and adaptive control of IPMSM drives for lightweight electric trikes

The increasing demand for sustainable transport solutions has accelerated the adoption of solar-assisted electric mobility, particularly for lightweight vehicles such as e-trikes. This work presents the design and validation of a solar photovoltaic (PV) powered interior permanent magnet synchronous motor (IPMSM) drive integrated with a hybrid energy storage system consisting of a lithium-ion battery and ultracapacitor. An adaptive energy management strategy is implemented to coordinate power flow between PV, battery, and ultracapacitor, thereby enhancing energy utilization and protecting the battery from high current transients. A tri-port converter enables seamless bidirectional energy exchange, while field-oriented control ensures efficient torque production with reduced ripple. MATLAB/Simulink-based simulations using calibrated component models and environmental disturbance testing demonstrate that the proposed IPMSM system achieves a 14–23% reduction in specific energy consumption (Wh/km) compared to BLDC and SRM drives, while maintaining DC bus stability within ± 2 V and remaining feasible for lightweight e-trike implementation. The integration of PV power further limited the battery state-of-charge drop to only ~ 4% over a 30-min cycle, confirming the effectiveness of the adaptive strategy. The results highlight the superior efficiency, extended driving range, and improved regenerative capability of the IPMSM, positioning it as a practical and energy-efficient propulsion solution for next-generation e-trike applications.