The relationship between spatial ability self-efficacy and visualization performance: psychometric evidence.

INTRODUCTION: This study adopts a holistic perspective on spatial ability by integrating preservice teachers' self-efficacy perceptions with performance-based approaches. It aims to assess spatial ability self-efficacy and examine differences across selected variables, as well as the relationship between spatial self-efficacy and visualization performance. METHODS: A valid and reliable measurement instrument, the Spatial Ability Self-Efficacy Perception Scale, was developed. The scale consists of 35 items across three factors-spatial visualization, spatial relations, and spatial orientation-and demonstrates high internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.960). RESULTS: The findings indicate that preservice teachers generally report high levels of spatial self-efficacy, with higher levels in spatial visualization and spatial orientation and moderate levels in spatial relations. While no significant gender differences were observed, spatial self-efficacy perceptions differed significantly by academic program, with higher levels among preservice teachers in Mathematics Education as well as Social Studies Education. In addition, the total spatial self-efficacy perception score showed a positive and moderate association with visualization performance; at the factor level, spatial visualization and spatial relations showed moderate associations, whereas spatial orientation showed a weak association. DISCUSSION: Overall, the results support conceptualizing spatial ability as a multidimensional construct shaped by the interaction of cognitive performance and self-efficacy perceptions. By integrating affective and cognitive dimensions of spatial thinking, this study offers psychometric, methodological, and theoretical contributions to spatial ability research and provides implications for teacher education.