Pushkar Wankhede, Devendra Bhuyar, Shrinivas R. Zanwar, Rohit Pawar, Mahendra R. Jadhav, Nisarg Gandhewar, Madhusudan B. Kulkarni, Manish Bhaiyya, Hossam Haick
Noninvasive diagnostic approaches are essential for early detection, patient compliance, and reduction of healthcare burden, yet they often face limitations in sensitivity, specificity, and timely interpretation. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) address these gaps by uncovering complex patterns in diverse data streams and, in some instances, transforming diagnostics from isolated, ad hoc assessments into continuous, real-time monitoring. This review explores the integration of AI/ML across key noninvasive platforms, including medical imaging, wearable sensors, breath analysis, biofluid-based diagnostics (saliva, sweat, urine), and optical sensing methods. It synthesizes the current state of these technologies while highlighting emerging directions such as federated learning, explainable AI, digital twins, and the incorporation of nanosensors. Alongside technological advances, this review critically discusses barriers to adoption, including data privacy, algorithmic fairness, regulatory hurdles, and system integration challenges. By providing a comprehensive, modality-wise perspective, this article aims to guide researchers, clinicians, healthcare professionals, and policymakers in understanding both the promise and the practical limitations of AI-assisted noninvasive diagnostics. Ultimately, it offers a roadmap for translating innovation into scalable, cost-effective, and patient-centered solutions that can broaden healthcare access and improve outcomes globally.