Direct Z-Scheme BiVO ₄ @g-C ₃ N ₅ Core–Shell Heterostructure for Efficient Visible-Light-Driven Ciprofloxacin Degradation, Chromium Reduction, and Oxygen Reduction Reactions

High Resolution Image Download MS PowerPoint Slide The efficient removal of persistent organic pollutants and toxic heavy metals from water and sustainable chemical synthesis remain a critical environmental challenge. In this study, an oxygen vacancy-BiVO 4 @g-C 3 N 5 (BC1:3) core–shell hybrid photocatalyst was developed, leveraging visible-light-mediated photocatalysis as a green and scalable solution. The unique core–shell architecture facilitates enhanced charge separation and transfer at the heterojunction interface, significantly improving the photocatalytic efficiency. BC1:3, synthesized via a simple hydrothermal–calcination process, showed remarkable ciprofloxacin degradation activity, reaching a rate constant of 0.0155 min –1 i.e., 90.2%, which is 1.38 times greater than g-C 3 N 5 (CN) and 1.7 times greater than BiVO 4 (BVO), this performance further elevated to 95.12% in connection to an external oxygen purging, primarily attributed to the enhanced activation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) under elevated oxygen concentration. The catalyst also demonstrated excellent Cr (VI) photoreduction performance (0.016 min –1 ), approximately 2.66 and 1.7-fold higher than BVO and CN, respectively. Furthermore, BC1:3 achieved remarkable H 2 O 2 generation (1824.44 μM L –1 ), outperforming BVO and CN by factors of 19 and 8.5 times, respectively, which can be ascribed to the efficient charge separation and accelerated two-electron oxygen reduction pathway facilitated by the Z -scheme heterojunction. Reactive species analysis confirmed the involvement of • O 2 –, • OH, and photogenerated h + as major contributors to its photocatalytic activity. The visible-light-driven Z -scheme heterojunction between the BVO and CN extended light absorption and promoted efficient charge carrier dynamics. The catalyst demonstrated excellent stability and reusability, underscoring its potential as a robust photocatalyst for advanced water treatment and green chemical production.