Robotic In Situ Bioprinting in Tissue Engineering: Technologies, Challenges, and Clinical Perspectives.

In situ bioprinting offers a compelling alternative to conventional tissue engineering by directly depositing biomaterials, cells, and bioactive factors at defect sites for localized tissue fabrication. Robotic in situ bioprinters, integrating additive manufacturing with surgical robotics, have emerged as a promising substitute for handheld systems. However, this field remains at an early stage, with existing studies largely limited to specific devices or isolated applications and lacking systematic reviews that compare diverse technological approaches. Key issues such as the compatibility between bioprinting modalities and robotic platforms, the design considerations of end-effectors, strategies for path planning and control, and applications across different organs have yet to be comprehensively synthesized. This review addresses these gaps by providing a structured overview of current progress, highlighting common challenges, and outlining future directions toward clinical translation.