Advances in the Application of Low-Cost, Natural Materials, and Waste-Derived Catalysts for Catalytic Upgrading of Plastic and Biomass Pyrolysis Oil

) catalysts. Particularly, Red mud-derived catalyst has demonstrated cost-effectiveness and sustainable catalytic upgrading of bio-oil and waste plastic pyrolysis oil into fuel-range hydrocarbons (28-40 wt % gasoline, 35-50 wt % diesel fractions, and chlorine content less than 0.1 wt %). This research promotes the design and development of heterogeneous catalysts from industrial, municipal solid waste, biomass and agricultural residues, eggshells, seashells and bones, and e-waste by combining synthesis and purification methodologies to recover mixed metal oxide materials to bridge existing supply gaps. Consequently, their applications in the catalytic upgrading of oil produced from the pyrolysis of waste plastics and lignocellulosic biomasses into fuels offer economic, environmental, and energy security benefits.