A Review on Three-Dimensional Printing for Energy Conversion and Storage: Recent Advances and Future Prospects

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, also known as additive manufacturing, has emerged as a disruptive technology for the fabrication of next-generation energy devices, spanning energy generation, conversion, and storage applications. By enabling the creation of intricate, hierarchical architectures across multiple length scales, 3D printing offers performance enhancements that are often unattainable through conventional manufacturing methods. For example, microlattice structures produced via 3D printing demonstrate superior mechanical integrity and electrochemical performance compared to their bulk counterparts. These unprecedented design freedoms have catalyzed extensive research into 3D-printed batteries, supercapacitors, fuel cells, solar cells, and triboelectric, piezoelectric, and thermoelectric energy harvesters. This review critically examines the major 3D printing techniques applied in energy device fabrication, benchmarking them against traditional methods, and discusses key material considerations and process parameters. Recent advances in the 3D printing of electrodes, electrolytes, and separators are systematically reviewed. Finally, we identify the key challenges and future opportunities for advancing 3D-printed energy devices toward scalable, high-performance, and sustainable energy technologies.