Epilogue

Urbanization has evolved from a symbol of human progress to a global force reshaping the Earth system. Cities, once founded in resource-rich environments, now expand into marginal areas, relying heavily on distant resources and energy-intensive infrastructure. This growth intensifies climate change, disrupts biogeochemical cycles, and creates profound challenges for water resources. Cities also hold potential as centers of adaptation and mitigation of global environmental change. As urban populations rise, understanding and managing the interactions between urban ecosystems and the Earth system are crucial for ensuring a resilient and healthy future for the majority of Earth's population.