A review on lateral flow immunoassay technology for mycotoxin detection: From single-signal enhancement to multi-signal synergy.

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi that frequently contaminate grains, nuts, and other foodstuffs. Their widespread occurrence causes significant economic losses and poses a serious threat to human and animal health. Traditional analytical methods relying on complex instruments often fail to meet the requirements for rapid on-site screening and remain limited by cost, operational complexity, and restricted on-site deployment capabilities. Lateral flow immunoassays (LFIAs) are important tool for the rapid detection of mycotoxins due to their simplicity, portability, and low cost. This review provides a critical overview of the latest development in signal readout architecture for LFIA platforms, including single-signal platforms based on colorimetry, fluorescence, chemiluminescence, and surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS); dual-mode system integrating colorimetric-fluorescence or colorimetric-photothermal readings; and multi-mode platforms that combines three or more orthogonal signals. It also discusses the mechanism of functional nanomaterials in signal amplification, with particular emphasis on gold and fluorescent nanomaterials, nanozymes, metal organic frameworks, magnetic nanoparticles, and layered assembled plasmonic probes. The integration of portable readers, smartphone imaging, and machine learning algorithms, and high-throughput multiplexing formats is also summarized. In summary, future priorities have been identified, including multifunctional nanoprobes, intelligent on-site deployment devices, and AI assisted data interpretation. This review provides a systematic framework for the rational design of highly sensitive, reliable, and field-deployable LFIA technologies for mycotoxin monitoring.