Emerging cement-based energy harvesting and storage materials for future net-zero energy buildings and infrastructure

The integration of civil infrastructure and energy technologies has accelerated the development of cement-based energy materials, endowing traditional infrastructure with energy harvesting, storage, and thermal regulation capabilities. As cities face increasing energy demands and pressures to enhance climate resilience, cement-based energy materials offer a scalable and decentralized pathway for embedding energy functions directly into concrete-dominated infrastructure. This review provides a critical overview of recent advances across six emerging categories of cement-based energy materials, including thermoelectric cementitious materials (TECs), piezoelectric cementitious materials (PECs), cement-based triboelectric nanogenerators (CBTENGs), cement-based batteries (CBBs), cement-based supercapacitors (CBSs), and thermal storage concrete (TSC) incorporating phase change materials (PCMs). Each category is examined in terms of fundamental mechanisms, material formulations, manufacturing processes, performance, and representative applications. Key challenges including mechanical-functional trade-offs, environmental durability, performance standardization, and scalability are evaluated, and potential integration strategies are proposed. Future research directions are outlined, emphasizing multifunctional integration, long-term durability, scalable fabrication, and the development of standardized testing protocols to accelerate real-world deployment. By synthesising insights from construction materials, structural engineering, and energy harvesting and storage systems, this review underscores the transformative potential of cement-based energy materials in advancing smart, self-powering, and sustainable infrastructure aligned with global net-zero targets.