Lithium-ion battery recycling: a critical review of techno-economical and socio-environmental impacts

The increasing use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in electric vehicles and electronic devices has created a pressing need for sustainable recycling solutions. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of LIB recycling, integrating technological, environmental, economic, and social dimensions. Recycling processes such as hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, and direct recovery are explored for the extraction and reuse of essential battery components, including cathodes, anodes, electrolytes, binders, separators, and current collectors. Life cycle comparisons between recycled and virgin materials, as well as disposal methods like landfilling, are conducted, focusing on greenhouse gas emissions, energy demand, water use, and system costs. Direct recycling emerges as the most environmentally and economically favorable method, demonstrating the lowest emissions (0.6–8.1 kg CO₂/kg), energy consumption (3.5–112.1 MJ/kg), and cost ($0.9–4.1/kg), with minimal water pollution. In contrast, virgin LIB manufacturing and landfilling exhibit significantly higher environmental and economic impacts compared to recycling. Economic analysis further reveals that fiscal incentives, even at modest levels, can markedly enhance the profitability and competitiveness of all recycling routes, particularly direct recycling. The study also explores the role of policy instruments such as subsidies, carbon credits, and extended producer responsibility (EPR) schemes in enhancing recycling viability. Additionally, it identifies key technical and socio-environmental challenges and provides future research directions to guide advancements in sustainable LIB recycling. The findings emphasize the need for policy-driven support to scale direct recycling and close research gaps, offering actionable insights for developing a low-carbon, circular battery economy.