The price of protection: an integrated toxicological and modelling assessment of flubendiamide exposure in Anabas testudineus.

The widespread use of pesticides such as flubendiamide raises increasing concerns regarding their ecological impact on non-target aquatic organisms. This study evaluated the acute and chronic toxicity of flubendiamide in the freshwater fish Anabas testudineus by integrating hematological, biochemical, oxidative stress, and genotoxic biomarkers with advanced modelling approaches. Fish were exposed to sublethal concentrations (2.66 and 5.32 mg/L) for 45 days, and responses were assessed at multiple time points. Acute toxicity assays revealed a time-dependent decrease in LC50 values, confirming cumulative toxicity. Chronic exposure resulted in significant hematological alterations, including reduced red blood cell counts and elevated white blood cell counts, indicating physiological stress and immune activation. Biochemical analyses showed increased levels of glucose, creatinine, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase, alongside decreased total protein, suggesting metabolic disruption and potential hepatic and renal impairment. Oxidative stress was evidenced by increased catalase activity and malondialdehyde levels, coupled with decreased superoxide dismutase activity and reduced glutathione content. Genotoxic effects, assessed using the comet assay, demonstrated dose-dependent DNA damage in blood cells. Integrated biomarker response (IBR) analysis confirmed progressive physiological stress with increasing exposure, while species sensitivity distribution (SSD) highlighted interspecies variability in susceptibility. Additionally, General Unified Threshold models of Survival (GUTS) provided robust predictions of survival dynamics. Overall, this study demonstrates that flubendiamide induces multi-level toxicity in A. testudineus and underscores its ecological risk in aquatic environments.