Prevalence, serotype diversity, and antibiotic resistance of non-typhoidal Salmonella in East African poultry: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Non-typhoidal salmonellosis, caused by Salmonella enterica, threatens poultry production and food safety in East Africa, where poultry is vital for livelihoods. This systematic review and meta-analysis assessed the pooled prevalence, serotype distribution, and antimicrobial resistance patterns of non-typhoidal Salmonella in East African poultry. Following PRISMA guidelines, we searched on PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, African Journals Online, and Google Scholar for studies published up to December, 2025. A random-effects model was used to calculate pooled prevalence with 95% confidence intervals in R (Version 4.6.0). Subgroup analyses and I2 statistics were used to explore the source of heterogeneity, and a heatmap visualized the antibiotic resistance patterns. Thirteen studies comprising 422 positive isolates were included. The pooled prevalence of non-typhoidal Salmonella in East Africa was 6% (95% CI: 4-8%), with high heterogeneity (I2 = 95.3%). The subgroup analysis showed prevalence was highest in Uganda (11%, 95% CI: 7-16%) and lowest in Tanzania (1%, 95% CI: 0-6%). By diagnostic method, slide agglutination was higher (7%, 95% CI: 5-10%) than PCR (4%, 95% CI: 1-8%). By sample type, internal organs had the highest prevalence (17%, 95% CI: 12-21%) and environmental samples had the lowest (1%, 95% CI: 0-3%). By source, slaughterhouses recorded the highest rate (12%, 95% CI: 7-18%) and extensive farms the lowest rate (3%, 95% CI: 0-8%). The pooled antibiotic resistance was 65% (95% CI: 55-79%). Oxytetracycline is the most resistant antibiotic (84%, 95% CI: 70-98%). S. Typhimurium exhibited the highest pooled prevalence (18%, 95% CI: 15-22%), and S. Kentucky was the most multidrug-resistant serotype and had the highest number of resistance genes. In conclusion, non-typhoidal Salmonella is prevalent in East African poultry, with multidrug-resistant serotypes distributed across the region. Therefore, collaborative interventions are urgently needed to address this zoonotic threat.