Treated wastewater irrigation: A bridge between water scarcity, a healthy environment, and safe food production

Water scarcity has led to the growing use of untreated wastewater for irrigation in Iran, posing serious risks to human health and the environment. Treated Wastewater (TWW) offers a safer and more sustainable alternative, with economic, environmental, and social benefits. However, its adoption by farmers remains limited. This study aligns with the One Health approach by examining how irrigation practices affect interconnected domains-human health, environmental safety, and agricultural productivity-and by identifying behavioral factors that influence farmers' decisions regarding safe water use. This study applies the Health Belief Model (HBM) to explore the determinants of farmers' intentions to use TWW for irrigation. Using a survey-based approach and structural equation modeling (SEM), the study analyzes responses from farmers in Tehran Province, Iran. The findings reveal that the HBM accounts for 72.1 % of the variance in farmers' intentions to adopt TWW, with perceived benefits emerging as the strongest predictor. These results suggest that targeted policy interventions emphasizing the economic, environmental, and social benefits of TWW, along with addressing the negative effects of untreated wastewater (UTWW) on agricultural productivity, could encourage wider adoption among farmers.