Xihang Xu, J. Keenahan, M. Salauddin
• Performed OpenFOAM® simulation to quantify eco-retrofit effects on wave overtopping. • 2D numerical models demonstrate strong agreement with experimental results. • Eco-retrofits can reduce overtopping by up to 68%, though increases may occur. • Effects are highly influenced by wave conditions, geometry, and retrofit placement. • A composite influential factor is proposed to describe wave overtopping effects.