Techno-economic evaluation and policy frameworks for renewable energy in Indonesia's frontier, outermost, and least developed (3T) regions: Pathways to sustainable regional electrification

Indonesia's Frontier, Outermost, and Least Developed (3T) regions continue to face significant challenges in electrification despite vast renewable energy resources and national commitments to a sustainable energy transition. This study evaluates the techno-economic feasibility, policy effectiveness, and socioeconomic impacts of renewable energy deployment as pathways for sustainable electrification in remote Indonesian regions. A systematic review and meta-analysis following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses 2020 guidelines synthesized 30 studies published between 2013 and 2025. The standardized mean difference (SMD) and Clearness Index (CI) of the levelized cost of electricity between renewable energy systems and conventional diesel or grid electricity was estimated using a random-effects model, supported by subgroup, heterogeneity, sensitivity, and publication bias analyses. The results indicate a statistically significant pooled effect size (SMD = 1.57; 95% CI: 0.29–2.84), demonstrating competitive techno-economic performance of renewable energy systems across diverse 3T contexts. Renewable deployment increased electrification rates by approximately 22.9%, generated an average of 98 jobs per project, reduced CO₂ emissions by 515 kg per household annually, and produced substantial economic benefits for households. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) and micro-hydro systems exhibit the most consistent cost performance, while hybrid systems provide improved reliability in isolated energy systems. Policy analysis identifies regulatory fragmentation and fossil-fuel subsidy distortions as primary barriers to large-scale implementation. Overall, renewable energy deployment in 3T regions represents an integrated solution linking energy access, economic development, and environmental sustainability, requiring strengthened regulatory alignment, financing support, and community engagement to accelerate equitable electrification. • Meta-analysis of 30 studies on renewable energy in Indonesia’s 3T regions. • Renewable systems outperform diesel generation (pooled SMD = 1.57). • Electrification access rises by ∼22.9%, reducing CO₂ by 515 kg/household/year. • Solar PV and micro-hydro show the most stable techno-economic outcomes. • Policy challenges include regulatory fragmentation and subsidy distortions.