Sustainable agriculture in the face of water scarcity: Opportunities, challenges, and global perspectives

• Reclaimed water boosts irrigation, hydroponics, aquaponics, and food systems. • Agriculture uses 70 % of freshwater; climate change demands smarter water solutions. • Water reuse supports food security through irrigation, and aquifer recharge. • Health risks, cost, and public skepticism hinder widespread water reuse adoption. • Precision farming, strong policies, and global efforts enable resilient food systems. Global agriculture faces escalating pressure to secure reliable water supplies as water scarcity and climate change increasingly threaten freshwater availability. With agriculture consuming nearly 70 % of global freshwater withdrawals, there is a critical need to adopt alternative water sources capable of sustaining future food demand. Although reclaimed water has been widely studied for irrigation, existing reviews often overlook its broader potential across the food system, the integration of nutrient recovery with water reuse, and the emerging role of reclaimed water in precision and controlled-environment agriculture. This review addresses these gaps by providing a comprehensive, system-level synthesis of reclaimed water applications spanning irrigation, food processing, hydroponics, aquaponics, soil conditioning, and functional food production. Specifically, the review evaluates the technical, environmental, and nutritional implications of using reclaimed water across a range of agricultural pathways. It further explores how reclaimed water contributes to nutrient recycling and supports circular bioeconomy strategies, while also identifying the major safety, regulatory, socioeconomic, and public perception barriers that hinder widespread adoption. In addition, the review draws on global examples including practices in Israel, Spain, California, and Australia to illustrate scalable and successful models of water reuse in agriculture. By integrating insights from water reuse, soil science, food safety, and sustainability transitions, this article uniquely contributes to the literature by proposing a multidisciplinary framework that links reclaimed water with precision agriculture, resource recovery, and Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) implementation. The review concludes that advancing reclaimed water use in agriculture will require coordinated policy support, improved risk communication, and strengthened international collaboration, particularly in developing countries. Collectively, the synthesis underscores reclaimed water as a strategic pathway for building climate-resilient and resource-efficient food systems.