The application of nanomaterials in vaccine adjuvants

Vaccines prevent infectious diseases by enhancing both innate and adaptive immune responses, while adjuvants amplify, accelerate, or prolong these responses, thereby increasing vaccine efficacy. This article reviews recent advancements in the use of nanomaterials as vaccine adjuvants. From traditional aluminum salts and complete Freund's adjuvants to modern Toll-like receptor (TLR), Stimulator of interferon genes (STING), composite, and nano adjuvants, the focus has increasingly shifted toward the precise control of immune responses. With the emergence of new technologies and design approaches, nanomaterials have made it feasible to develop adjuvants that are safe, easy to produce, industrially scalable, long-term stable, cost-effective, biodegradable, compatible with antigens, capable of sustained antigen release, and able to elicit the desired immune response.