Influence of laser-engineered substrate structuring on clad geometry in wire laser cladding: Experimental analysis and multi-objective optimization using a hybrid surrogate-assisted evolutionary framework

Precise control of clad geometry is essential for ensuring dimensional accuracy and metallurgical quality in wire laser cladding (WLC), particularly in coating, and additive manufacturing. While process parameters traditionally govern clad formation, engineered substrate structuring introduces an additional geometry-driven mechanism to influence melt-pool behavior. In this study, AISI 316 L substrates were laser-textured with grooves of varying depth, width, and spacing and clad with AISI 17–4PH wire at different deposition speeds. A Taguchi design quantified the influence of these parameters on clad height, width, side angle, and dilution. The results showed that clad height decreased with increasing deposition speed and spacing, while clad width peaked at low speeds and intermediate groove widths (∼200 µm). Side angle improved at higher speeds, greater spacing, and mid-range widths. Dilution was lowest with narrow grooves, small spacing, and low and speeds. To manage these trade-offs, an adaptive multi-surrogate assisted evolutionary algorithm (ASAEA) was implemented, combining objective-specific surrogate models with NSGA-III, MOEA/D, and RVEA, followed by augmented scalarization–based ranking. The optimal setting, 360 µm depth, 185 µm width, 235 µm spacing, and 11.3 mm/s speed, yielded predicted values of 0.58 mm clad height, 2.21 mm width, 0.70 dilution, and a 137° side angle. A confirmation test showed a maximum deviation of ∼18%, verifying the reliability of the optimization framework.