The hidden costs of the clean energy transition: Uncovering the environmental and human health impacts of critical minerals supply chains and strategic pathways to sustainability—a critical review

The transition to clean energy, driven by the urgent need to mitigate climate change and achieve carbon neutrality, has become a major driver of high global demand for critical metals and minerals, including lithium, cobalt, copper, graphite, nickel, and rare earth elements (REEs). These minerals are essential for low-carbon technologies, including electric vehicles, advanced batteries, solar photovoltaic systems, grid storage, and wind turbines. However, this transition often involves overlooked environmental, social, and public health impacts associated with the mining, processing, transportation, and end-of-life management of clean energy systems and associated components containing critical metals and minerals. Evidence from diverse research fields and global case studies, including lithium brine extraction, copper and nickel mining, REE processing, and cobalt production, demonstrates that while critical metals/minerals support low-carbon energy, their production frequently creates serious challenges for public health, local livelihoods, and the environment. In many cases, these challenges are transferred from energy consumers in developed countries to vulnerable communities in resource-rich nations. To address these “hidden costs”, this study proposes integrated strategies to mitigate risks and promote sustainable, resilient, and ethical mineral supply chains. Key measures include robust regulatory frameworks and enforcement, cleaner production technologies, circular economy practices, enhanced transparency and traceability, and strengthened policy and multilateral cooperation. The findings revealed that a truly sustainable energy transition requires more than the adoption of low-carbon technologies, since such a transition does not automatically guarantee low-impact production; instead, it must balance mineral development with environmental protection, public health, and socio-economic resilience.