Epidemiology of infectious diseases in mass gatherings: Challenges and opportunities

Mass gatherings (MGs) are large-scale events that bring together people from different regions for religious, cultural, political, or sporting purposes. These events provide rich social and cultural experiences but also amplify the risk of infectious disease transmission. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the epidemiology of infectious diseases in MGs, highlighting the determinants of risk, key challenges, and emerging opportunities for innovation. Using lessons from the Hajj, Kumbh Mela, Olympic Games, and other global gatherings, it examines surveillance systems, behavioral dynamics, and technological advancements. While MGs may serve as amplifiers of infectious pathogens, they also represent opportunities to strengthen public health systems and global preparedness. Embedding MG health strategies within global frameworks such as the International Health Regulations (IHR-2005) and integrating digital and genomic tools are crucial steps toward resilient and equitable health systems.