Research progress, challenges, strategies, and perspectives on pesticides and amphibians: From toxic effects to risk assessment.

Amphibians are key species in maintaining ecological balance and promoting the development of human activities. However, pesticide use potentially threatens amphibian population survival. The development of agriculture and pesticide exposure are closely linked to the exacerbation of population declines. In recent years, increasing attention has been directed toward the toxic effects of pesticides on amphibians. Nevertheless, the mechanisms underlying pesticide toxicity in amphibians, as well as the challenges faced by research methods, evaluation approaches, and assessment frameworks, remain poorly understood. Herein, we provide an in-depth exploration of the currently known toxic effects of pesticides on amphibians, along with the methods and systems for toxicity research, evaluation, and risk assessment. Furthermore, new strategies are proposed for studying pesticide toxicity, elucidating mechanisms, and improving risk assessment frameworks for amphibians. This work provides valuable insights into the ecological impacts of pesticides on amphibians and offers guidance for the evaluation of such chemicals.