Unveiling ayahuasca: Comprehensive Study of Botanical and Chemical Diversity.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ayahuasca is an entheogenic beverage traditionally used by Indigenous peoples and local communities throughout Amazonia. Its preparation typically involves the vine Banisteriopsis caapi and the leaves of Psychotria viridis, widely recognized as its principal ingredients. Other plant species and ethnotaxa have also been historically reported in association with ayahuasca preparation, but their identities and supporting evidence remain unclear. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study compiles plant species and ethnotaxa historically reported in association with ayahuasca preparation and evaluates the ethnobotanical, taxonomic, and phytochemical evidence supporting these records. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A narrative review of ethnobotanical and phytochemical literature was integrated with herbarium voucher data. Species were assessed according to the strength of available evidence, including peer-reviewed records, herbarium voucher records associated with vernacular names, and current taxonomic concepts. This framework distinguished taxa with robust support from those with limited documentation. RESULTS: Twenty-four vine species (Malpighiaceae) and thirteen species reported as leaf ingredients (Malpighiaceae and Rubiaceae) were identified, together with 119 B. caapi and two P. viridis ethnotaxa. Five vine and four leaf species were supported by both literature and voucher records and classified as historically confirmed ingredients. Ten vine and three leaf species were supported only by voucher records and classified as putative ayahuasca-associated taxa, whereas nine vine and six leaf species lacked sufficient evidence and were excluded. In addition, eighty species were identified as occasional additives to the ayahuasca beverage. Phytochemical data remain heavily concentrated on B. caapi and P. viridis. CONCLUSIONS: Ayahuasca is associated with greater botanical diversity than is currently recognized, although supporting evidence varies among taxa. An evidence-based framework is essential for distinguishing historically supported ingredients from putative taxa and for guiding future research.