Comparative analysis of CO 2 emissions from conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, battery electric vehicles, and fuel cell electric vehicles in selected Central European countries

Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are considered vehicles that do not produce local CO 2 emissions. However, their life cycle carbon footprint depends on the carbon intensity of the electricity or hydrogen that powers them and on emissions associated with vehicle production and recycling. This study aimed to compare the life cycle carbon footprint of conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), BEVs, and FCEVs during the production and use phases (Cradle-to-Gate, Well-to-Tank, and Tank-to-Wheel) in Central European countries. The analysis was based on three reference vehicles and publicly available data, including the carbon footprint of vehicle manufacturing, batteries, gasoline, electricity, and hydrogen. The national energy mix largely determines variation in carbon footprints: BEVs emit 25 tCO 2 in Austria (50% less than ICEVs) compared with 55 tCO 2 in Poland (8% more). In most countries, total emissions from BEVs and FCEVs were significantly lower than those from ICEVs, except in countries with a grid carbon intensity of approximately 600 gCO 2 /kWh. Despite higher production emissions, lower operating emissions were observed. According to the 2035 outlook, the footprints of BEVs and FCEVs will decrease by 64% and 79%, respectively, confirming that technological progress and the expansion of renewable energy sources are fundamental to reducing the climate impact of transport. Energy mix, not powertrain technology, dictates climate performance. These results support the European Union’s adoption of fleet targets and the prioritization of grid and hydrogen decarbonization before imposing blanket BEV and FCEV mandates.