Mycotoxins and plant alkaloids in plant-based protein foods and meat alternatives: Occurrence, exposure and risk assessment.

Plant-based protein-rich foods and meat alternatives are increasingly used as substitutes or supplements to animal-based products. Despite their potential nutritional and environmental benefits, data on their contamination with natural toxins remain limited, particularly for plant alkaloids. In this study, 57 mycotoxins, 16 tropane alkaloids and 32 pyrrolizidine alkaloids were analysed in 101 plant-based protein samples, including protein isolates/concentrates, extruded products, veggie burgers and other meat alternatives, using U-HPLC-HRMS/MS. Twenty-five mycotoxins and eight alkaloids were quantified, with enniatins and Alternaria mycotoxins being the most prevalent. The highest concentrations reached 2800 μg/kg for tenuazonic acid and 890 μg/kg for deoxynivalenol. Atropine and scopolamine were most frequently detected plant alkaloids, with maximum levels in soybeans reaching 33 and 12 μg/kg, respectively. Risk assessment identified extruded soy-based products, veggie burger mixes and rice proteins as major contributors to natural toxin exposure, with elevated risks for aflatoxin B1, Alternaria toxins and atropine/scopolamine, particularly in children.