Self-assembled Citrus × Limon 'Rosso' essential oil-tea polyphenol colloids modulate macronutrient digestion and enhance polyphenol bioaccessibility in an almond milk tea model system.

Self-assembled colloids composed of Citrus × limon 'Rosso' essential oil (CEO) and tea polyphenols (TP) have been developed previously, whereas their behavior in plant-based beverage matrices remains unclear. Here, CEO-TP colloids were incorporated into tea-special almond milk (AM-SFT) and original almond milk (AM) to investigate their effects on colloidal stability, macronutrient digestion, and TP bioaccessibility. TP improved the stability of both systems, whereas CEO showed only minor effects. During gastrointestinal digestion, TP promoted protein hydrolysis and lipid digestion, while CEO partially attenuated the TP-induced increase in free fatty acid release. Molecular dynamics simulations showed that d-limonene reduced the binding affinity of theaflavin toward α-amylase from -9.82 to -5.80 kcal/mol, explaining the limited effect on carbohydrate digestion. CEO also increased TP bioaccessibility from 84.35% to 91.77% in AM. These findings provide new insights into bioactive-food matrix interactions and support the rational design of functional plant-based beverages with improved nutritional performance.