Atmospheric profiles and human exposure of industrial sector-specific emissions of antimony bound in fine particulate matter

Antimony (Sb) and its compounds are recognized as global hazardous pollutants due to their potential carcinogenicity and long-range transport characteristics. Unintentional Sb emissions from industrial activities are critical yet understudied for exposure assessment and control strategies. Here, we assessed the atmospheric emissions and spatial distributions of Sb in fine particulate matter samples from 118 full-scale industrial plants covering 13 industrial sectors. Secondary copper smelting exhibited the highest Sb concentration, with an average value of 286.34 μg/g. Emission factors of Sb for each industrial sector were calculated to compile the emission inventory. Cement kiln co-processing solid waste was identified as a priority Sb emission source, with annual emissions of 15,351 kg. Eastern China showed significantly higher Sb emissions compared to other regions, necessitating targeted emission reduction measures for major industrial sources of Sb. The inhalation exposure levels for children and adults were 0.06 pg/(kg·day) and 0.04 pg/(kg·day), respectively, due to emissions from these activities. Emission and human exposure are also found to be closely related to regional economic development. These findings could provide pivotal baseline data for controlling Sb emissions in China and enhance the environmental sustainability of industrial development.