Characterization of fragrance profiles in air fresheners and health risk assessment from their inhalation exposure.

Fragranced products release various fragrance substances into indoor air, posing potential health risks. In this study, we aimed to quantify the concentration of 58 fragrance substances in air fresheners marketed in South Korea (n = 50) and Europe (n = 41) using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, analyze fragrance combination patterns using association rule mining (ARM), and assess inhalation exposure risks using a two-tiered risk assessment. Linalool, limonene, and geraniol were predominant in South Korean products with detection frequencies of 80 %, 60 %, and 60 %, respectively, whereas linalool, limonene, and α-pinene were predominant in European products at 95 %, 90 %, and 90 %, respectively. All of these predominant substances are monoterpenoids, and linalool contributed the most to the total fragrance concentration in both regions, at 32 % (19-1.3 × 105 mg kg-1) in South Korea and 27 % (61-1.9 × 105 mg kg-1) in Europe. Detection frequencies of the top 20 % contributors between regions were strongly correlated (r = 0.87), whereas concentration levels showed moderate correlation (r = 0.59). ARM analysis revealed regional differences in fragrance combinations, with South Korean products favoring musky-floral (lift = 1.36) and European products favoring floral-floral (lift = 1.31). In the Tier 1 assessment, camphor, linalyl acetate, α-hexylcinnamaldehyde, and lilial exceeded the safety threshold, with hazard quotients (HQs) greater than 1; however, in the Tier 2 realistic exposure scenarios, their HQs were found to be below 1. In summary, this study provides the first comprehensive cross-regional characterization of fragrance substances in air fresheners and highlights the need for greater public awareness of their risks from inhalation exposure.