Solar energy analysis for agrivoltaic system design in tropical climates: A new integrated modeling framework

Agrivoltaic performance in tropical climates is evaluated in this study by coupling high-resolution ground-level irradiance mapping with detailed photovoltaic system modeling. The proposed framework links fine-resolution canopy light analysis to energy generation outcomes and computes the land equivalent ratio (LER). Two array geometries (south-tilted “shed” rows and vertical east–west bifacial rows) are simulated at 10, 20, and 30 meter spacings across dry and wet seasons for three Malaysian localities (George Town, Kuantan, Johor Bahru). Annual specific PV yields are high: near 1.30–1.50 GWh/MWp per year for shed and 1.25–1.45 GWh/MWp per year for vertical, corresponding to ≈320–900 MWh per hectare per year depending on density. Vertical arrays raise under-row minima and reduce deep-shade area at a small energy penalty, yielding a more uniform spatial and spatial crop-plane light field. Geometry and spacing dominate outcomes in the analysed TMY climate years, while seasonal differences are comparatively smaller across the three sites. LER estimates based on crop light-suitability fractions exceed unity for a broad set of crop–layout pairs: shade-tolerant leafy greens, herbs, and fungi achieved ≈1.15–1.40 across spacings; at 20 m, most moderate- and full-sun crops reach LER ≈ 1; vertical rows often raise them slightly above unity. These results provide design-relevant guidance for low-latitude, high-diffuse climates similar to those modelled: ∼20 m spacing emerges as a balanced option for mixed crop portfolios; 10 m is best suited to shade-tolerant portfolios; and 30 m is justified mainly when higher under-canopy light is prioritised over PV energy density.