3D-Printed solid-state electrolytes for next-generation batteries: Advances in design, challenges, and future opportunities

Battery technology is undergoing a transformative shift with the integration of 3D printing into solid-state electrolyte (SSE) design, enabling safer, more efficient, and sustainable next-generation energy storage solutions. This review examines recent advancements in 3D-printed SSEs, addressing critical failure mechanisms, performance challenges, and fundamental design principles. Traditional manufacturing methods often struggle to produce complex architectures; however, 3D printing offers exceptional precision, facilitating the fabrication of intricate structures that enhance interfacial compatibility with electrodes, improve thermal stability, and, most importantly, optimize ionic conductivity. This study explores monovalent cations (Na, K, and Li) and multicharged cations (Al 3+ , Ca 2+ , Zn 2+ , and Mg 2+ ), highlighting the broad potential of next-generation batteries. By leveraging 3D-printed designs that optimize geometric, chemical, and mechanical properties, key challenges in SSEs are addressed, including poor ionic conductivity and interfacial resistance in inorganic electrolytes, as well as low cation transference numbers and oxidative instability in polymer-based components. Future prospects involve the integration of 3D-printed metals with advanced cathodic chemistries, such as Ni-rich and Li-rich additives, while also exploring renewable organic alternatives—including sulfur, oxygen, and even carbon dioxide—as sustainable components in battery technologies. This review underscores the transformative role of 3D printing in advancing SSEs as frontrunners in clean, efficient, and high-performance energy storage systems.