Multi-scale analysis of the supply–demand relationship of soil conservation services in China

• Quantified soil conservation services supply and demand in China from 2010 to 2020. • Revealed scale effects on its spatial distribution across grid and administrative scales. • Proposed a multi-scale collaborative governance model to enhance soil conservation. Soil conservation is a vital ecosystem regulatory service for mitigating land degradation, yet its supply–demand dynamics across spatial scales are poorly understood. In this study, we employed the RUSLE model to quantify the supply and demand of soil conservation services (SCS) at a 1 km spatial resolution during the period from 2010 to 2020. Specifically, the supply of SCS was quantified as the difference between potential and actual soil erosion, whereas the actual soil erosion amount represented the demand. We further analyzed spatial patterns across multiple scales, including resampled grid resolutions and administrative units. The results revealed distinct temporal trends and spatial heterogeneity: supply declined and then recovered, while demand generally decreased. High supply-high demand areas were predominantly concentrated in Southwest China. Conversely, regions such as Northwest China and Tibet displayed a clear imbalance, where low supply coincided with high demand. The multi-scale analysis revealed pronounced scale effects, with administrative aggregation homogenizing spatial patterns and masking local heterogeneity. These shifts in supply–demand patterns highlight the sensitivity of ecosystem service assessments to scale effects. This study highlighted the need for multi-scale governance strategies to prevent macro-level policies from masking local imbalances, enabling precise ecological management.