Electrochemical technologies for critical raw materials recovery and circular integration

Electrochemical (EC) technologies are emerging as key enablers for the sustainable recovery of critical raw materials (CRMs) from technological waste, aligning with the objectives of the European Union’s circular economy and the Net-Zero Industry Act. This review examines recent advances in EC methods, including electrowinning, electrorefining, EC leaching, electrodialysis, capacitive deionization, and mediated EC reactions, highlighting their mechanisms and scalability. While laboratory-scale technological innovations demonstrate promising selectivity and energy efficiency, industrial deployment remains constrained by input waste variability. Comparative analysis reveals that EC technologies offer distinct advantages over conventional metallurgical approaches, particularly in terms of environmental impact and modular design. However, gaps persist in techno-economic validation, lifecycle assessment, and standardization of reactor designs. This review identifies key research priorities and outlines pathways for scaling up EC-based recovery systems to meet future CRMs demand.