Battery waste management: Tackling environmental, health, and resource challenges from growing waste

Improper disposal of rechargeable batteries, particularly lithium-ion, lead-acid, and nickel-cadmium types, poses serious risks to ecosystems and human health due to the release of toxic metals. The global battery market is projected to grow from USD 139.9 billion in 2024 to USD 672.5 billion by 2034 at a CAGR of 17.0%, with lithium-ion batteries dominating due to their high energy density, while lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries pose unique recycling challenges related to heavy metal toxicity. This research work summarises state-of-the-art practices, challenges, and opportunities in battery waste management, focusing on degradation mechanisms and variables such as temperature, state of charge, and operating conditions. Battery degradation, influenced by calendar and cycle aging, operational factors like temperature and SOC, and maintenance practices, exacerbates waste generation and complicates recycling economics. Life cycle assessment reveals that lithium-ion batteries have a global warming potential of 50-313 kg CO₂-eq/kWh, primarily from cathode production, with recycling offering significant credits through avoided burdens. A Monte Carlo simulation of lithium-ion battery recycling shows profitability in 65.2% of cases, with an average annual profit of USD 0.91 million and breakeven at 9.59 million kg of processed mass. Recycling also cuts CO₂ emissions by up to 70.0 kg/kWh compared with virgin production, highlighting major environmental benefits. Profitability is driven by waste supply, active battery mass, and material revenue. The study emphasises the importance of circular economy strategies, battery degradation management, and second-life applications in achieving long-term environmental and economic sustainability in waste battery management.