Computational approaches in bioprinting processes.

Bioprinting technologies often require repeated experimental trials to optimize operational parameters and characterize bioprinted constructs. In this context, computational simulations have emerged as a powerful complementary tool, enabling them to analyse the bioprinting processes and address the distinct challenges associated with each technique. By predicting bioink behaviours, evaluating shear stress effects and enhancing printability, simulations can substantially streamline bioprinting workflows and provide insights that are difficult to obtain experimentally. This Review examines computational approaches for the three principal bioprinting strategies: extrusion-based, droplet-based and light-based methods. We begin with a concise overview of each technique, followed by a discussion of bioink rheology, an essential factor for accurate in silico modelling. We then outline the fundamental theoretical frameworks and primary computational methodologies used to simulate each process, along with the key challenges that remain. Next, we highlight major applications of computational simulations in bioprinting, including nozzle designs, printability assessments and photopolymerization predictions. We finally conclude by discussing emerging directions in which simulation-based approaches could further accelerate advances in the field.