3D-to-4D printing technologies in construction: Roadmap review of current status and potential applications

Rapid advancements in four-dimensional (4D) printing have introduced time-dependent functionality into additive manufacturing. Research trends indicate that biomedical, aerospace, and materials science disciplines primarily drive 4D printing. However, its applications in civil engineering remain underexplored, while some developed applications remain in the laboratory stage. This paper systematically examines the current progress, applications, and emerging potential of 4D printing with a focus on its relevance to civil and construction engineering. A bibliometric mapping and critical analysis were conducted. Results show that, within civil engineering, about 35 research articles were published focusing on modular self-assembling components, climate-adaptive façades, deployable bridges, and regolith-based lunar construction. However, large-scale adoption is constrained by limited materials and printing equipment, as well as the absence of performance-based standards. To transition 4D printing from experimental studies to practical applications, future research should focus on developing AI-driven predictive modelling and a formalised standardisation framework.