Contamination of uranium in the Indian groundwater - a review and risk assessment.

The primary aim of the present investigation is to comprehensively assess uranium levels in the Indian groundwater system. Most regions in Indian are geologically comprised mainly of Pre-Cambrian, and Deccan Traps, particularly in the Southern part of India whereas the North and Northeast regions are primarily covered by Alluvium and Tertiary rocks formations. Precipitation patterns in India are highly variable and differ from region to region. A dataset of 12,303 groundwater uranium samples was assessed to describe the uranium distribution across the India. The results infer that uranium ranges from 0.02 to 8649 μg/L, with a mean of 67.28 μg/L. This mean uranium concentration in Indian groundwater exceeds the World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water standard of 30 μg/L by several orders of magnitude. Elevated uranium concentration was observed in Karnataka (8649 μg/L), Punjab (1340 μg/L), Andhra Pradesh (594 μg/L), Tamil Nadu (302 μg/L), Haryana (290 μg/L), Rajasthan (260 μg/L), Bihar (238.2 μg/L), Uttar Pradesh (189 μg/L), and Telangana (158 μg/L). Both Geogenic and anthropogenic factors including agricultures activities, industries processes and mining operations are likely contributing to uranium contamination in groundwater. This study also assessed the potential human health risks associated with uranium exposure for two age groups, children and adults, because uranium contamination in groundwater can have detrimental effect on individuals of all age groups. The mean non-carcinogenic risk values were calculated to be 7.48 for children and 9.98 for adults, indicating that adults in the region are more vulnerable to health risks from uranium exposure than children. Therefore, regular monitoring of uranium contents in groundwater is essential to minimize the adverse health risk for local residents. Moreover, the provision of clean and safe drinking water should be prioritized to diminish uranium exposure. It is strongly recommended that precautionary measures should be implemented to ensure the long-term health and well-being of local populace.