Effects of climate-smart agricultural practices on productivity, adaptation, and mitigation indicators: evidence from a global meta-analysis

Context Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) has been promoted globally and has potential to address three interconnected agricultural challenges: i) enhancing productivity and farm incomes; ii) building resilience and adaptive capacity to climate change; and iii) mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from farming systems. However, CSA effectiveness and impacts vary across farming systems and agroclimatic regions, and there is a lack of comprehensive global evidence synthesis. Objective The study investigated the effect of farm-level CSA technologies and management practices on the three broad CSA objectives and outcomes. Methods This study applied a three-level meta-analysis approach to synthesize findings from global studies that quantitatively investigated the effects of CSA practices on the three broad CSA objectives. Three indicators for each of the three CSA outcomes were selected to capture different but complementary CSA dimensions. Quantitative empirical studies from 2000 to 2024 were extracted and evaluated for the meta-analysis. The optimized search strategy identified 1620 paired measurements from 499 peer-reviewed articles from 66 countries and covered 42 different CSA management practices for the meta-analysis. A multi-level random effects model using standardized mean difference was used to estimate overall average effect sizes. The study checked for potential publication bias and small study effects, and applied sensitivity analysis to assess potential effects of missing studies. Results and conclusions Overall, most CSA practices improved productivity, adaptation, and mitigation indicators, although the magnitude and statistical significance of effects varied across indicators. Publication bias-adjusted estimates indicated that the effects on food consumption score and global warming potential were not statistically significant. Significance The global meta-analysis findings provide evidence and insights to guide the selection and implementation of impactful CSA strategies across global agroecological and climate zones. Such evidence and insights are not feasible from idiosyncratic national or regional meta-analysis studies.