Exploring the impact of virtual reality-based mathematics learning on students' motivation: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Motivation is crucial for learning, particularly in challenging subjects such as mathematics. Virtual reality (VR) may offer a promising approach to increasing students' motivation; however, findings regarding its effectiveness in mathematics learning remain inconsistent, and a comprehensive review does not yet exist. This systematic review examined the impact of VR-based mathematics learning on students' motivation. Literature searches were conducted across multiple bibliographic databases for studies published in English, German, or Indonesian between 2015 and 2025. Risk of bias was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal tools, and certainty of evidence was evaluated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) framework. Based on four included studies, VR-based mathematics learning showed a significant positive effect on students' motivation (N = 210; SMD = 1.31, 95% CI [0.20, 2.37], t(5) = 3.20, p = .029). However, this finding should be interpreted cautiously given the small number of studies (k = 4), wide confidence interval, and substantial heterogeneity (I2 = 86.41%). Narrative synthesis suggests that student and instructional material characteristics may be associated with differences in motivational outcomes. However, formal subgroup analyses could not be performed due to the limited evidence base. Overall, VR may enhance motivation in mathematics learning, but effects vary considerably across contexts. Therefore, its implementation should be accompanied by rigorous local-context evaluation. This review was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42023463974), and its protocol was published in PLOS ONE.