Morphophysiological hormonal and molecular mechanisms of rice adaptation to drought and salinity stress

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is an important global food crop; however, its production is continuously susceptible to drought and salinity. The present review presents the complex morpho-physiological, hormonal and molecular mechanisms adopted by rice employs to survive the drought and salinity stress. Morphologically, rice adapts by increasing root length and adjusting the root-to-shoot ratio, while physiological defenses include stomatal regulation and activation of antioxidant systems to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during the stress condition. We discuss the important role of phytohormones, specifically abscisic acid (ABA) and jasmonic acid (JA), in mediating stress signalling. Furthermore, the review also provides a detailed key role of important transcription factor families, including NAC, MYB, bZIP, and AP2/ERF. The sub-section of review also highlighting specific genetic evidence from recent overexpression and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated studies in rice crop against the said stress. The integration of multi-omics and biotechnological approaches is presented as the most effective strategy for developing climate-resilient rice varieties. This condensed review offers an up-to-date roadmap for researchers aiming to improve rice productivity under increasingly saline and arid conditions.