Socioeconomic determinants of per capita household carbon dioxide emissions: evidence from Lucknow India

This study examines the socio-economic determinants of per capita household carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in Lucknow, India, using primary data collected through personal interviews with 270 households. Per capita CO₂ emissions from electricity consumption, LPG use for cooking, and private vehicle use were estimated using the emission coefficient method (ECM). The effects of socio-economic and demographic factors on emissions were analysed using ordinary least squares (OLS) regression with a double-log specification. The results show that per capita household income is the strongest predictor of electricity- and transport-related emissions. A 1% increase in per capita household income is associated with a 0.50% increase in per capita electricity emissions and a 1.07% increase in per capita transport emissions, while its effect on LPG emissions is not statistically significant. Households located in developed urban areas are associated with higher electricity- and transport-related emissions, whereas households belonging to relatively advantaged socio-economic groups exhibit higher electricity-related emissions. Household size and age exert varying effects across emission sources, highlighting the importance of household composition in shaping energy use. The findings underscore the role of socio-economic and spatial inequalities in determining urban carbon emissions. By incorporating India-specific socio-cultural factors such as caste and intra-urban disparities, the study contributes to the growing literature on household carbon emissions. Although the findings are associational and primarily applicable to rapidly urbanizing tier-2 Indian cities, they highlight the need for targeted climate policies promoting sustainable consumption, energy-efficient technologies, improved public transport, electric mobility, and climate-sensitive urban planning.