Seismic vulnerability and failure typology of masonry buildings in Nepal: a review

This paper reviews the seismic performance and failure modes of masonry buildings in Nepal, synthesizing published post-earthquake reconnaissance reports and research articles from recent major earthquakes such as the 2015 Gorkha and 2023 Jajarkot earthquakes. The study categorizes the observed damage into four major types: in-plane, out-of-plane, connection/interface, and building collapse. The findings show that most severely damaged buildings were constructed using conventional dry-stone or mud-mortar masonry, with no seismic resistance, including horizontal bands, corner reinforcements, or wall-to-roof bond. On the other hand, buildings with simple seismic detailing recorded relatively improved performance, with little structural damage. This review paper demonstrates the importance of construction quality, material characteristics, and structural design in shaping earthquake resilience. Such results underscore the need for enhanced construction practices, awareness efforts, and enforcement of seismic design standards in rural areas of Nepal. The paper also associates the observed failure typologies with the suggestions given in NBC 202:2015 and highlights the implications for seismic safety. The analysis offers a unified perspective on masonry building failures and informs safer design and construction in earthquake-prone areas.