Hussein Oraby, Adel A. Ezz, Ghada E. Hegazy
In response to escalating global water scarcity intensifying, especially in arid regions, advanced desalination technologies play a vital role in securing sustainable freshwater sources. This review examines membrane desalination, thermal desalination, electrodialysis, hybrid systems, and microbial desalination cells evaluating their mechanisms, efficiencies, limitations, and practical applications. Membrane-based technologies, particularly reverse osmosis, demonstrate high energy efficiency and widespread adoption, while thermal methods, such as multi-stage flash and multi-effect distillation, remain viable for high-salinity waters despite their energy demands. Electrodialysis shows promise for low-salinity applications, and hybrid systems integrate multiple techniques to enhance performance and energy efficiency. Our analysis highlights key advancements, including improvements in membrane materials, energy recovery systems, and low-energy desalination processes. Economic and environmental assessments reveal that while desalination costs are decreasing, challenges remain in brine disposal, energy consumption, and infrastructure requirements. Visual representations illustrate efficiency trends, cost comparisons, and potential innovations shaping the future of desalination. By providing a comprehensive understanding of these technologies, this review aims to guide future research and policy decisions toward more sustainable and accessible freshwater solutions.