Black soldier fly hermetia illucens applications in circular economy and agricultural sustainability: a review

The Black Soldier Fly (BSF) ( Hermetia illucens ) is a key solution for sustainable waste management and resource recovery. BSF larvae reduce organic waste volumes by 50–80%, convert up to 20% into biomass, and produce protein-rich feed, biodiesel precursors, and organic fertilizers. Life cycle assessments show up to 90% lower greenhouse gas emissions than conventional waste treatment, while frass and biochar enhance soil health and carbon sequestration. Economic studies show strong viability: in Kenya, BSF feed could generate USD 69–687 million annually, create up to 252,000 jobs, and recycle 2–18 million tonnes of waste, while Malaysia’s feed sector is valued at USD 400 billion globally. Advances in automation, IoT monitoring, and genetic optimization are improving efficiency and scalability. Remaining challenges include public acceptance and regulatory gaps, but BSF systems offer major opportunities for food security, environmental sustainability, and circular economy practices.