Milk-derived bioactive peptides from fermented products: production, therapeutic potential, and future prospects.

Milk and its fermented derivatives have long been valued for their nutritional and functional properties. Recently, bioactive peptides (BAPs) derived from milk proteins have gained attention for their antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic effects. These peptides are encrypted within casein and whey proteins and released through enzymatic hydrolysis or microbial fermentation, particularly by lactic acid bacteria (LAB). This review discusses the biochemical basis and functional roles of milk-derived BAPs, their production via enzymatic and fermentation methods, and their potential in managing oxidative stress and metabolic disorders. Special focus is placed on LAB-mediated proteolysis, cell envelope proteinases (CEPs), and therapeutic peptide sequences. Novel technological and computational strategies for peptide identification are also explored, along with current challenges in purification and commercialization. Finally, future directions involving metabolic engineering, foodomics, and bioinformatics are highlighted. The insights presented reinforce the potential of milk-derived BAPs in the development of functional foods and nutraceuticals.