Adoption of complementary green production technologies among Ethiopian smallholder farmers.

BACKGROUND: Green production technologies (GPTs) are essential for improving the ecological sustainability and economic efficiency of agriculture. However, evidence on the joint adoption, intensity of use, and knowledge of multiple GPTs remains limited in Ethiopia. This study examined the adoption of green pest control, soil testing and fertilization, and organic fertilizer among 506 wheat-growing households. A multivariate probit model, zero-inflated Poisson regression, and double-hurdle model were employed. RESULTS: The results revealed significant complementarities among the three GPTs, indicating that farmers tend to adopt them jointly. Family size, education, annual income, perceived benefits, declining soil fertility, and the prevalence of crop diseases and pests positively influenced adoption decisions and adoption intensity. In contrast, perceived risks, high technology costs, and greater distance from markets negatively affected adoption. Ownership of communication assets, participation in agricultural training, access to extension services, and membership in farmer groups were positively associated with the adoption and use of GPTs. The results also demonstrated significant spatial heterogeneity in farmers' adoption behavior across wheat-producing locations. CONCLUSION: GPT adoption is shaped by household resources, perceptions, access to information, market constraints, and location-specific conditions. Policies should promote integrated technology packages, strengthen extension and training services, support farmer organizations, and reduce technology costs and market-access barriers. These findings advance understanding of the interdependence of green technologies and the factors influencing their adoption and intensity of use in smallholder wheat production. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.